Reinforced concrete is the most widely used structural material of the 20th century. Because the tensile strength of concrete is low, steel bars are embedded in the concrete to carry all internal tensile forces. Tensile forces may be caused by imposed loads or deformations, or by load-independent effects such as temperature changes or shrinkage.
Figure 1
Consider the simple reinforced concrete beam shown in Figure 1. The external loads
cause tension in the bottom fibres which may lead to cracking, as shown. Practical reinforced concrete beams are usually cracked under the day-to-day service loads. On a cracked crosssection, the applied moment is resisted by compression in the concrete above the crack and tension in the bonded reinforcing steel. Although the steel reinforcement provides the cracked concrete beam with flexural strength, it does not prevent cracking and does not prevent the loss of stiffness caused by cracking. Crack widths are approximately proportional to the strain, and hence stress, in the reinforcement. Steel stresses must therefore be limited to some appropriately low value in order to avoid excessively wide cracks. Similarly, large steel strain is the result of large curvature, which in turn is associated with large deflection. There is little benefit to be gained, therefore, by using higher strength steel or concrete, since in order to satisfy serviceability requirements, the increased strain capacity afforded by higher strength steel cannot be utilized.
Prestressed concrete is a particular form of reinforced concrete. Prestressing involves the application of an initial compressive load on a structure to reduce or eliminate the internal tensile forces and thereby control or eliminate cracking. The initial compressive load is imposed and sustained by highly tensioned steel reinforcement reacting on the concrete. With cracking reduced or eliminated, a prestressed section is considerably stiffer than the equivalent (usually cracked) reinforced section. Prestressing may also impose internal forces which are of opposite sign to the external loads and may therefore significantly reduce or even eliminate deflection.
With service load behaviour improved, the use of high-strength steel reinforcement and highstrength concrete becomes both economical and structurally efficient. As will be seen subsequently, only steel which can be tensioned with large initial elastic strains is suitable for prestressing concrete. The use of high-strength steel is therefore not only an advantage to prestressed concrete, it is a necessity. Prestressing results in lighter members, longer spans, and an increase in the economical range of application of reinforced concrete.
Prestress is usually imparted to a concrete member by highly tensioned steel reinforcement (wire, strand, or bar) reacting on the concrete. The highstrength prestressing steel is most often tensioned using hydraulic jacks. The tensioning operation may occur before or after the concrete is cast and, accordingly, prestressed members are classified as either pretensioned or post-tensioned.
Figure 2
Figure 2 illustrates the procedures for pretensioning a concrete member. The prestressing tendons are initially tensioned between fixed abutments and anchored. With the formwork in place, the concrete is cast around the highly stressed steel tendons and cured. When the concrete has reached its required strength, the wires are cut or otherwise released from the abutments. As the highly stressed steel attempts to contract, the concrete is compressed.
Prestress is imparted via bond between the steel and the concrete. Pretensioned concrete members are often precast in pretensioning beds long enough to accommodate many identical units simultaneously. To decrease the construction cycle time, steam curing may be employed to facilitate rapid concrete strength gain and the concrete is often stressed within 24 hours of casting. Because the concrete is usually stressed at such an early age, elastic shortening of the concrete and subsequent creep strains tend to be high. This relatively high time-dependent shortening of the concrete causes a significant reduction in the tensile strain in the bonded, prestressing steel and a relatively high loss of prestress.
Figure 3
The procedures for post-tensioning a concrete member are shown in Figure 3. With the formwork in position, the concrete is cast around hollow ducts which are fixed to any desired profile. The steel tendons are usually in place, unstressed in the ducts during the concrete pour, or alternatively may be threaded through the ducts at some later time. When the concrete has reached its required strength, the tendons are tensioned. Tendons may be stressed from one end with the other end anchored or may be stressed from both ends, as shown in Figure 3b. The tendons are then anchored at each stressing end.
The concrete is compressed during the stressing operation and the prestress is maintained after the tendons are anchored by bearing of the end anchorage plates onto the concrete. The post-tensioned tendons also impose a transverse force to the member wherever the direction of the cable changes. After the tendons have been anchored and no further stressing is required, the ducts containing the tendons are often filled with grout under pressure. In this way, the tendons are bonded to the concrete and are more efficient in controlling cracks and providing ultimate strength. Bonded tendons are also less likely to corrode or lead to safety problems if a tendon is subsequently lost or damaged. In some situations, however, particularly in North America and Europe, tendons are not grouted for reasons of economy and remain permanently unbonded.
Most in situ prestressed concrete is post-tensioned. Relatively light and portable hydraulic jacks make on-site post-tensioning an attractive proposition. Post-tensioning is also used for segmental construction of large-span bridge girders.
Prestress may also be imposed on new or existing members using external tendons or such devices as flat jacks. These systems are useful for temporary prestressing operations but may be subject to high time-dependent losses.
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Consider the simple reinforced concrete beam shown in Figure 1. The external loads
cause tension in the bottom fibres which may lead to cracking, as shown. Practical reinforced concrete beams are usually cracked under the day-to-day service loads. On a cracked crosssection, the applied moment is resisted by compression in the concrete above the crack and tension in the bonded reinforcing steel. Although the steel reinforcement provides the cracked concrete beam with flexural strength, it does not prevent cracking and does not prevent the loss of stiffness caused by cracking. Crack widths are approximately proportional to the strain, and hence stress, in the reinforcement. Steel stresses must therefore be limited to some appropriately low value in order to avoid excessively wide cracks. Similarly, large steel strain is the result of large curvature, which in turn is associated with large deflection. There is little benefit to be gained, therefore, by using higher strength steel or concrete, since in order to satisfy serviceability requirements, the increased strain capacity afforded by higher strength steel cannot be utilized.
Prestressed concrete is a particular form of reinforced concrete. Prestressing involves the application of an initial compressive load on a structure to reduce or eliminate the internal tensile forces and thereby control or eliminate cracking. The initial compressive load is imposed and sustained by highly tensioned steel reinforcement reacting on the concrete. With cracking reduced or eliminated, a prestressed section is considerably stiffer than the equivalent (usually cracked) reinforced section. Prestressing may also impose internal forces which are of opposite sign to the external loads and may therefore significantly reduce or even eliminate deflection.
With service load behaviour improved, the use of high-strength steel reinforcement and highstrength concrete becomes both economical and structurally efficient. As will be seen subsequently, only steel which can be tensioned with large initial elastic strains is suitable for prestressing concrete. The use of high-strength steel is therefore not only an advantage to prestressed concrete, it is a necessity. Prestressing results in lighter members, longer spans, and an increase in the economical range of application of reinforced concrete.
Prestress is usually imparted to a concrete member by highly tensioned steel reinforcement (wire, strand, or bar) reacting on the concrete. The highstrength prestressing steel is most often tensioned using hydraulic jacks. The tensioning operation may occur before or after the concrete is cast and, accordingly, prestressed members are classified as either pretensioned or post-tensioned.
Figure 2 illustrates the procedures for pretensioning a concrete member. The prestressing tendons are initially tensioned between fixed abutments and anchored. With the formwork in place, the concrete is cast around the highly stressed steel tendons and cured. When the concrete has reached its required strength, the wires are cut or otherwise released from the abutments. As the highly stressed steel attempts to contract, the concrete is compressed.
Prestress is imparted via bond between the steel and the concrete. Pretensioned concrete members are often precast in pretensioning beds long enough to accommodate many identical units simultaneously. To decrease the construction cycle time, steam curing may be employed to facilitate rapid concrete strength gain and the concrete is often stressed within 24 hours of casting. Because the concrete is usually stressed at such an early age, elastic shortening of the concrete and subsequent creep strains tend to be high. This relatively high time-dependent shortening of the concrete causes a significant reduction in the tensile strain in the bonded, prestressing steel and a relatively high loss of prestress.
The procedures for post-tensioning a concrete member are shown in Figure 3. With the formwork in position, the concrete is cast around hollow ducts which are fixed to any desired profile. The steel tendons are usually in place, unstressed in the ducts during the concrete pour, or alternatively may be threaded through the ducts at some later time. When the concrete has reached its required strength, the tendons are tensioned. Tendons may be stressed from one end with the other end anchored or may be stressed from both ends, as shown in Figure 3b. The tendons are then anchored at each stressing end.
The concrete is compressed during the stressing operation and the prestress is maintained after the tendons are anchored by bearing of the end anchorage plates onto the concrete. The post-tensioned tendons also impose a transverse force to the member wherever the direction of the cable changes. After the tendons have been anchored and no further stressing is required, the ducts containing the tendons are often filled with grout under pressure. In this way, the tendons are bonded to the concrete and are more efficient in controlling cracks and providing ultimate strength. Bonded tendons are also less likely to corrode or lead to safety problems if a tendon is subsequently lost or damaged. In some situations, however, particularly in North America and Europe, tendons are not grouted for reasons of economy and remain permanently unbonded.
Most in situ prestressed concrete is post-tensioned. Relatively light and portable hydraulic jacks make on-site post-tensioning an attractive proposition. Post-tensioning is also used for segmental construction of large-span bridge girders.
Prestress may also be imposed on new or existing members using external tendons or such devices as flat jacks. These systems are useful for temporary prestressing operations but may be subject to high time-dependent losses.
